src/base/bitunion.hh - public/gem5 - Git at Google

 /*
  * Copyright (c) 2007-2008 The Regents of The University of Michigan
  * All rights reserved.
  *
  * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
  * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
  * met: redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
  * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer;
  * redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
  * notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
  * documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution;
  * neither the name of the copyright holders nor the names of its
  * contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
  * this software without specific prior written permission.
  *
  * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
  * "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
  * LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
  * A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
  * OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
  * SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
  * LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
  * DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
  * THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
  * (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
  * OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
  */

 #ifndef __BASE_BITUNION_HH__
 #define __BASE_BITUNION_HH__

 #include <functional>
 #include <iostream>
 #include <type_traits>
 #include <typeinfo>

 #include "base/bitfield.hh"
 #include "sim/serialize_handlers.hh"

 //      The following implements the BitUnion system of defining bitfields
 //on top of an underlying class. This is done through the pervasive use of
 //both named and unnamed unions which all contain the same actual storage.
 //Since they're unioned with each other, all of these storage locations
 //overlap. This allows all of the bitfields to manipulate the same data
 //without having to have access to each other. More details are provided with
 //the individual components.

 //This class wraps around another which defines getter/setter functions which
 //manipulate the underlying data. The type of the underlying data and the type
 //of the bitfield itself are inferred from the argument types of the setter
 //function.
 template<class Base>
 class BitfieldTypeImpl : public Base
 {
     static_assert(std::is_empty<Base>::value,
                   "Bitfield base class must be empty.");

   private:

     struct TypeDeducer
     {
         template<typename>
         struct T;

         template<typename C, typename Type1, typename Type2>
         struct T<void (C::*)(Type1 &, Type2)>
         {
             typedef Type1 Storage;
             typedef Type2 Type;
         };

         struct Wrapper : public Base
         {
             using Base::setter;
         };

         typedef typename T<decltype(&Wrapper::setter)>::Storage Storage;
         typedef typename T<decltype(&Wrapper::setter)>::Type Type;
     };

   protected:
     typedef typename TypeDeducer::Storage Storage;
     typedef typename TypeDeducer::Type Type;

     Type getter(const Storage &storage) const = delete;
     void setter(Storage &storage, Type val) = delete;

     BitfieldTypeImpl() = default;
     BitfieldTypeImpl(const BitfieldTypeImpl &) = default;

     Storage __storage;

     operator Type () const
     {
         return Base::getter(__storage);
     }

     Type
     operator=(const Type val)
     {
         Base::setter(__storage, val);
         return val;
     }

     Type
     operator=(BitfieldTypeImpl<Base> const & other)
     {
         return *this = (Type)other;
     }
 };

 //A wrapper for the above class which allows setting and getting.
 template<class Base>
 class BitfieldType : public BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>
 {
   protected:
     using Impl = BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>;
     using typename Impl::Type;

   public:
     BitfieldType() = default;
     BitfieldType(const BitfieldType &) = default;

     operator Type () const { return Impl::operator Type(); }

     Type operator=(const Type val) { return Impl::operator=(val); }
     Type
     operator=(BitfieldType<Base> const & other)
     {
         return Impl::operator=(other);
     }
 };

 //A wrapper which only supports getting.
 template<class Base>
 class BitfieldROType : public BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>
 {
   public:
     using Impl = BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>;
     using typename Impl::Type;

     BitfieldROType() = default;
     BitfieldROType(const BitfieldROType &) = default;

     Type operator=(BitfieldROType<Base> const &other) = delete;
     operator Type () const { return Impl::operator Type(); }
 };

 //A wrapper which only supports setting.
 template <class Base>
 class BitfieldWOType : public BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>
 {
   protected:
     using Impl = BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>;
     using typename Impl::Type;

   public:
     BitfieldWOType() = default;
     BitfieldWOType(const BitfieldWOType &) = default;

     Type operator=(const Type val) { return Impl::operator=(val); }
     Type
     operator=(BitfieldWOType<Base> const & other)
     {
         return Impl::operator=(other);
     }
 };

 //This namespace is for classes which implement the backend of the BitUnion
 //stuff. Don't use any of these directly.
 namespace BitfieldBackend
 {
     template<class Storage, int first, int last>
     class Unsigned
     {
         static_assert(first >= last,
                       "Bitfield ranges must be specified as <msb, lsb>");

       protected:
         uint64_t
         getter(const Storage &storage) const
         {
             return bits(storage, first, last);
         }

         void
         setter(Storage &storage, uint64_t val)
         {
             replaceBits(storage, first, last, val);
         }
     };

     template<class Storage, int first, int last>
     class Signed
     {
         static_assert(first >= last,
                       "Bitfield ranges must be specified as <msb, lsb>");

       protected:
         int64_t
         getter(const Storage &storage) const
         {
             return sext<first - last + 1>(bits(storage, first, last));
         }

         void
         setter(Storage &storage, int64_t val)
         {
             replaceBits(storage, first, last, val);
         }
     };

     //This class contains the basic bitfield types which are automatically
     //available within a BitUnion. They inherit their Storage type from the
     //containing BitUnion.
     template<class Storage>
     class BitfieldTypes
     {
       protected:

         template<int first, int last=first>
         using Bitfield = BitfieldType<Unsigned<Storage, first, last> >;
         template<int first, int last=first>
         using BitfieldRO =
                 BitfieldROType<Unsigned<Storage, first, last> >;
         template<int first, int last=first>
         using BitfieldWO =
                 BitfieldWOType<Unsigned<Storage, first, last> >;

         template<int first, int last=first>
         using SignedBitfield =
                 BitfieldType<Signed<Storage, first, last> >;
         template<int first, int last=first>
         using SignedBitfieldRO =
                 BitfieldROType<Signed<Storage, first, last> >;
         template<int first, int last=first>
         using SignedBitfieldWO =
                 BitfieldWOType<Signed<Storage, first, last> >;
     };

     //When a BitUnion is set up, an underlying class is created which holds
     //the actual union. This class then inherits from it, and provids the
     //implementations for various operators. Setting things up this way
     //prevents having to redefine these functions in every different BitUnion
     //type. More operators could be implemented in the future, as the need
     //arises.
     template <class Base>
     class BitUnionOperators : public Base
     {
         static_assert(sizeof(Base) == sizeof(typename Base::__StorageType),
                       "BitUnion larger than its storage type.");

       public:
         BitUnionOperators(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage = val;
         }

         BitUnionOperators(const BitUnionOperators &) = default;

         BitUnionOperators() {}

         //Conversion operators.
         operator const typename Base::__StorageType () const
         {
             return Base::__storage;
         }

         //Basic assignment operators.
         BitUnionOperators &
         operator=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage = val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator=(BitUnionOperators const &other)
         {
             return operator=(other.__storage);
         }

         //Increment and decrement operators.
         BitUnionOperators &
         operator++()
         {
             Base::__storage++;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators
         operator++(int)
         {
             BitUnionOperators ret = *this;
             operator++();
             return ret;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator--()
         {
             Base::__storage--;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators
         operator--(int)
         {
             BitUnionOperators ret = *this;
             operator--();
             return ret;
         }

         //Operation and assignment operators
         BitUnionOperators &
         operator+=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage += val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator-=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage -= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator*=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage *= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator/=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage /= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator%=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage %= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator&=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage &= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator|=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage |= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator^=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage ^= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator<<=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage <<= val;
             return *this;
         }

         BitUnionOperators &
         operator>>=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
         {
             Base::__storage >>= val;
             return *this;
         }
     };
 }

 //This macro is a backend for other macros that specialize it slightly.
 //First, it creates/extends a namespace "BitfieldUnderlyingClasses" and
 //sticks the class which has the actual union in it, which
 //BitfieldOperators above inherits from. Putting these classes in a special
 //namespace ensures that there will be no collisions with other names as long
 //as the BitUnion names themselves are all distinct and nothing else uses
 //the BitfieldUnderlyingClasses namespace, which is unlikely. The class itself
 //creates a typedef of the "type" parameter called __StorageType. This allows
 //the type to propagate outside of the macro itself in a controlled way.
 //Finally, the base storage is defined which BitfieldOperators will refer to
 //in the operators it defines. This macro is intended to be followed by
 //bitfield definitions which will end up inside it's union. As explained
 //above, these is overlayed the __storage member in its entirety by each of the
 //bitfields which are defined in the union, creating shared storage with no
 //overhead.
 #define __BitUnion(type, name) \
     class BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name : \
         public BitfieldBackend::BitfieldTypes<type> \
     { \
       protected: \
         typedef type __StorageType; \
         friend BitfieldBackend::BitUnionBaseType< \
             BitfieldBackend::BitUnionOperators< \
                 BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name> >; \
         friend BitfieldBackend::BitUnionBaseType< \
                 BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name>; \
       public: \
         union { \
             type __storage;

 /**
  * This closes off the class and union started by the above macro. It is
  * followed by a typedef which makes "name" refer to a BitfieldOperator
  * class inheriting from the class and union just defined, which completes
  * building up the type for the user.
  *
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 #define EndBitUnion(name) \
         }; \
     }; \
     typedef BitfieldBackend::BitUnionOperators< \
         BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name> name;

 //This sets up a bitfield which has other bitfields nested inside of it. The
 //__storage member functions like the "underlying storage" of the top level
 //BitUnion. Like everything else, it overlays with the top level storage, so
 //making it a regular bitfield type makes the entire thing function as a
 //regular bitfield when referred to by itself.
 #define __SubBitUnion(name, fieldType, ...) \
     class \
     { \
       public: \
         union { \
             fieldType<__VA_ARGS__> __storage;

 /**
  * This closes off the union created above and gives it a name. Unlike the top
  * level BitUnion, we're interested in creating an object instead of a type.
  * The operators are defined in the macro itself instead of a class for
  * technical reasons. If someone determines a way to move them to one, please
  * do so.
  *
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 #define EndSubBitUnion(name) \
         }; \
         inline operator __StorageType () const \
         { return __storage; } \
         \
         inline __StorageType operator = (const __StorageType & _storage) \
         { return __storage = _storage;} \
     } name;

 /**
  * Regular bitfields
  * These define macros for read/write regular bitfield based subbitfields.
  *
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 #define SubBitUnion(name, first, last) \
     __SubBitUnion(name, Bitfield, first, last)

 /**
  * Regular bitfields
  * These define macros for read/write regular bitfield based subbitfields.
  *
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 #define SignedSubBitUnion(name, first, last) \
     __SubBitUnion(name, SignedBitfield, first, last)

 /**
  * Use this to define an arbitrary type overlayed with bitfields.
  *
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 #define BitUnion(type, name) __BitUnion(type, name)

 /**
  * Use this to define conveniently sized values overlayed with bitfields.
  *
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 #define BitUnion64(name) __BitUnion(uint64_t, name)
 #define BitUnion32(name) __BitUnion(uint32_t, name)
 #define BitUnion16(name) __BitUnion(uint16_t, name)
 #define BitUnion8(name) __BitUnion(uint8_t, name)


 //These templates make it possible to define other templates related to
 //BitUnions without having to refer to internal typedefs or the BitfieldBackend
 //namespace.

 //To build a template specialization which works for all BitUnions, accept a
 //template argument T, and then use BitUnionType<T> as an argument in the
 //template. To refer to the basic type the BitUnion wraps, use
 //BitUnionBaseType<T>.

 //For example:
 //template <typename T>
 //void func(BitUnionType<T> u) { BitUnionBaseType<T> b = u; }

 //Also, BitUnionBaseType can be used on a BitUnion type directly.

 /**
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 template <typename T>
 using BitUnionType = BitfieldBackend::BitUnionOperators<T>;

 namespace BitfieldBackend
 {
     template<typename T>
     struct BitUnionBaseType
     {
         typedef typename BitUnionType<T>::__StorageType Type;
     };

     template<typename T>
     struct BitUnionBaseType<BitUnionType<T> >
     {
         typedef typename BitUnionType<T>::__StorageType Type;
     };
 }

 /**
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 template <typename T>
 using BitUnionBaseType = typename BitfieldBackend::BitUnionBaseType<T>::Type;


 //An STL style hash structure for hashing BitUnions based on their base type.
 namespace std
 {
     template <typename T>
     struct hash<BitUnionType<T> > : public hash<BitUnionBaseType<T> >
     {
         size_t
         operator() (const BitUnionType<T> &val) const
         {
             return hash<BitUnionBaseType<T> >::operator()(val);
         }
     };
 }


 namespace BitfieldBackend
 {

     template<typename T>
     static inline std::ostream &
     bitfieldBackendPrinter(std::ostream &os, const T &t)
     {
         os << t;
         return os;
     }

     //Since BitUnions are generally numerical values and not character codes,
     //these specializations attempt to ensure that they get cast to integers
     //of the appropriate type before printing.
     template <>
     inline std::ostream &
     bitfieldBackendPrinter(std::ostream &os, const char &t)
     {
         os << (int)t;
         return os;
     }

     template <>
     inline std::ostream &
     bitfieldBackendPrinter(std::ostream &os, const unsigned char &t)
     {
         os << (unsigned int)t;
         return os;
     }
 }

 /**
  * A default << operator which casts a bitunion to its underlying type and
  * passes it to BitfieldBackend::bitfieldBackendPrinter.
  *
  * @ingroup api_bitunion
  */
 template <typename T>
 std::ostream &
 operator << (std::ostream &os, const BitUnionType<T> &bu)
 {
     return BitfieldBackend::bitfieldBackendPrinter(
             os, (BitUnionBaseType<T>)bu);
 }

 // Specialization for BitUnion types.
 template <class T>
 struct ParseParam<BitUnionType<T>>
 {
     static bool
     parse(const std::string &s, BitUnionType<T> &value)
     {
         // Zero initialize storage to avoid leaking an uninitialized value
         BitUnionBaseType<T> storage = BitUnionBaseType<T>();
         auto res = to_number(s, storage);
         value = storage;
         return res;
     }
 };

 template <class T>
 struct ShowParam<BitUnionType<T>>
 {
     static void
     show(std::ostream &os, const BitUnionType<T> &value)
     {
         ShowParam<BitUnionBaseType<T>>::show(
                 os, static_cast<const BitUnionBaseType<T> &>(value));
     }
 };

 #endif // __BASE_BITUNION_HH__
	/*
	* Copyright (c) 2007-2008 The Regents of The University of Michigan
	* All rights reserved.
	*
	* Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
	* modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
	* met: redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
	* notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer;
	* redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
	* notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
	* documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution;
	* neither the name of the copyright holders nor the names of its
	* contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
	* this software without specific prior written permission.
	*
	* THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
	* "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
	* LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
	* A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
	* OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
	* SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
	* LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
	* DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
	* THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
	* (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
	* OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
	*/

	#ifndef __BASE_BITUNION_HH__
	#define __BASE_BITUNION_HH__

	#include <functional>
	#include <iostream>
	#include <type_traits>
	#include <typeinfo>

	#include "base/bitfield.hh"
	#include "sim/serialize_handlers.hh"

	// The following implements the BitUnion system of defining bitfields
	//on top of an underlying class. This is done through the pervasive use of
	//both named and unnamed unions which all contain the same actual storage.
	//Since they're unioned with each other, all of these storage locations
	//overlap. This allows all of the bitfields to manipulate the same data
	//without having to have access to each other. More details are provided with
	//the individual components.

	//This class wraps around another which defines getter/setter functions which
	//manipulate the underlying data. The type of the underlying data and the type
	//of the bitfield itself are inferred from the argument types of the setter
	//function.
	template<class Base>
	class BitfieldTypeImpl : public Base
	{
	static_assert(std::is_empty<Base>::value,
	"Bitfield base class must be empty.");

	private:

	struct TypeDeducer
	{
	template<typename>
	struct T;

	template<typename C, typename Type1, typename Type2>
	struct T<void (C::*)(Type1 &, Type2)>
	{
	typedef Type1 Storage;
	typedef Type2 Type;
	};

	struct Wrapper : public Base
	{
	using Base::setter;
	};

	typedef typename T<decltype(&Wrapper::setter)>::Storage Storage;
	typedef typename T<decltype(&Wrapper::setter)>::Type Type;
	};

	protected:
	typedef typename TypeDeducer::Storage Storage;
	typedef typename TypeDeducer::Type Type;

	Type getter(const Storage &storage) const = delete;
	void setter(Storage &storage, Type val) = delete;

	BitfieldTypeImpl() = default;
	BitfieldTypeImpl(const BitfieldTypeImpl &) = default;

	Storage __storage;

	operator Type () const
	{
	return Base::getter(__storage);
	}

	Type
	operator=(const Type val)
	{
	Base::setter(__storage, val);
	return val;
	}

	Type
	operator=(BitfieldTypeImpl<Base> const & other)
	{
	return *this = (Type)other;
	}
	};

	//A wrapper for the above class which allows setting and getting.
	template<class Base>
	class BitfieldType : public BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>
	{
	protected:
	using Impl = BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>;
	using typename Impl::Type;

	public:
	BitfieldType() = default;
	BitfieldType(const BitfieldType &) = default;

	operator Type () const { return Impl::operator Type(); }

	Type operator=(const Type val) { return Impl::operator=(val); }
	Type
	operator=(BitfieldType<Base> const & other)
	{
	return Impl::operator=(other);
	}
	};

	//A wrapper which only supports getting.
	template<class Base>
	class BitfieldROType : public BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>
	{
	public:
	using Impl = BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>;
	using typename Impl::Type;

	BitfieldROType() = default;
	BitfieldROType(const BitfieldROType &) = default;

	Type operator=(BitfieldROType<Base> const &other) = delete;
	operator Type () const { return Impl::operator Type(); }
	};

	//A wrapper which only supports setting.
	template <class Base>
	class BitfieldWOType : public BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>
	{
	protected:
	using Impl = BitfieldTypeImpl<Base>;
	using typename Impl::Type;

	public:
	BitfieldWOType() = default;
	BitfieldWOType(const BitfieldWOType &) = default;

	Type operator=(const Type val) { return Impl::operator=(val); }
	Type
	operator=(BitfieldWOType<Base> const & other)
	{
	return Impl::operator=(other);
	}
	};

	//This namespace is for classes which implement the backend of the BitUnion
	//stuff. Don't use any of these directly.
	namespace BitfieldBackend
	{
	template<class Storage, int first, int last>
	class Unsigned
	{
	static_assert(first >= last,
	"Bitfield ranges must be specified as <msb, lsb>");

	protected:
	uint64_t
	getter(const Storage &storage) const
	{
	return bits(storage, first, last);
	}

	void
	setter(Storage &storage, uint64_t val)
	{
	replaceBits(storage, first, last, val);
	}
	};

	template<class Storage, int first, int last>
	class Signed
	{
	static_assert(first >= last,
	"Bitfield ranges must be specified as <msb, lsb>");

	protected:
	int64_t
	getter(const Storage &storage) const
	{
	return sext<first - last + 1>(bits(storage, first, last));
	}

	void
	setter(Storage &storage, int64_t val)
	{
	replaceBits(storage, first, last, val);
	}
	};

	//This class contains the basic bitfield types which are automatically
	//available within a BitUnion. They inherit their Storage type from the
	//containing BitUnion.
	template<class Storage>
	class BitfieldTypes
	{
	protected:

	template<int first, int last=first>
	using Bitfield = BitfieldType<Unsigned<Storage, first, last> >;
	template<int first, int last=first>
	using BitfieldRO =
	BitfieldROType<Unsigned<Storage, first, last> >;
	template<int first, int last=first>
	using BitfieldWO =
	BitfieldWOType<Unsigned<Storage, first, last> >;

	template<int first, int last=first>
	using SignedBitfield =
	BitfieldType<Signed<Storage, first, last> >;
	template<int first, int last=first>
	using SignedBitfieldRO =
	BitfieldROType<Signed<Storage, first, last> >;
	template<int first, int last=first>
	using SignedBitfieldWO =
	BitfieldWOType<Signed<Storage, first, last> >;
	};

	//When a BitUnion is set up, an underlying class is created which holds
	//the actual union. This class then inherits from it, and provids the
	//implementations for various operators. Setting things up this way
	//prevents having to redefine these functions in every different BitUnion
	//type. More operators could be implemented in the future, as the need
	//arises.
	template <class Base>
	class BitUnionOperators : public Base
	{
	static_assert(sizeof(Base) == sizeof(typename Base::__StorageType),
	"BitUnion larger than its storage type.");

	public:
	BitUnionOperators(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage = val;
	}

	BitUnionOperators(const BitUnionOperators &) = default;

	BitUnionOperators() {}

	//Conversion operators.
	operator const typename Base::__StorageType () const
	{
	return Base::__storage;
	}

	//Basic assignment operators.
	BitUnionOperators &
	operator=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage = val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator=(BitUnionOperators const &other)
	{
	return operator=(other.__storage);
	}

	//Increment and decrement operators.
	BitUnionOperators &
	operator++()
	{
	Base::__storage++;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators
	operator++(int)
	{
	BitUnionOperators ret = *this;
	operator++();
	return ret;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator--()
	{
	Base::__storage--;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators
	operator--(int)
	{
	BitUnionOperators ret = *this;
	operator--();
	return ret;
	}

	//Operation and assignment operators
	BitUnionOperators &
	operator+=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage += val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator-=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage -= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator*=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage *= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator/=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage /= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator%=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage %= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator&=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage &= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator\|=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage \|= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator^=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage ^= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator<<=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage <<= val;
	return *this;
	}

	BitUnionOperators &
	operator>>=(typename Base::__StorageType const &val)
	{
	Base::__storage >>= val;
	return *this;
	}
	};
	}

	//This macro is a backend for other macros that specialize it slightly.
	//First, it creates/extends a namespace "BitfieldUnderlyingClasses" and
	//sticks the class which has the actual union in it, which
	//BitfieldOperators above inherits from. Putting these classes in a special
	//namespace ensures that there will be no collisions with other names as long
	//as the BitUnion names themselves are all distinct and nothing else uses
	//the BitfieldUnderlyingClasses namespace, which is unlikely. The class itself
	//creates a typedef of the "type" parameter called __StorageType. This allows
	//the type to propagate outside of the macro itself in a controlled way.
	//Finally, the base storage is defined which BitfieldOperators will refer to
	//in the operators it defines. This macro is intended to be followed by
	//bitfield definitions which will end up inside it's union. As explained
	//above, these is overlayed the __storage member in its entirety by each of the
	//bitfields which are defined in the union, creating shared storage with no
	//overhead.
	#define __BitUnion(type, name) \
	class BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name : \
	public BitfieldBackend::BitfieldTypes<type> \
	{ \
	protected: \
	typedef type __StorageType; \
	friend BitfieldBackend::BitUnionBaseType< \
	BitfieldBackend::BitUnionOperators< \
	BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name> >; \
	friend BitfieldBackend::BitUnionBaseType< \
	BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name>; \
	public: \
	union { \
	type __storage;

	/**
	* This closes off the class and union started by the above macro. It is
	* followed by a typedef which makes "name" refer to a BitfieldOperator
	* class inheriting from the class and union just defined, which completes
	* building up the type for the user.
	*
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	#define EndBitUnion(name) \
	}; \
	}; \
	typedef BitfieldBackend::BitUnionOperators< \
	BitfieldUnderlyingClasses##name> name;

	//This sets up a bitfield which has other bitfields nested inside of it. The
	//__storage member functions like the "underlying storage" of the top level
	//BitUnion. Like everything else, it overlays with the top level storage, so
	//making it a regular bitfield type makes the entire thing function as a
	//regular bitfield when referred to by itself.
	#define __SubBitUnion(name, fieldType, ...) \
	class \
	{ \
	public: \
	union { \
	fieldType<__VA_ARGS__> __storage;

	/**
	* This closes off the union created above and gives it a name. Unlike the top
	* level BitUnion, we're interested in creating an object instead of a type.
	* The operators are defined in the macro itself instead of a class for
	* technical reasons. If someone determines a way to move them to one, please
	* do so.
	*
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	#define EndSubBitUnion(name) \
	}; \
	inline operator __StorageType () const \
	{ return __storage; } \
	\
	inline __StorageType operator = (const __StorageType & _storage) \
	{ return __storage = _storage;} \
	} name;

	/**
	* Regular bitfields
	* These define macros for read/write regular bitfield based subbitfields.
	*
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	#define SubBitUnion(name, first, last) \
	__SubBitUnion(name, Bitfield, first, last)

	/**
	* Regular bitfields
	* These define macros for read/write regular bitfield based subbitfields.
	*
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	#define SignedSubBitUnion(name, first, last) \
	__SubBitUnion(name, SignedBitfield, first, last)

	/**
	* Use this to define an arbitrary type overlayed with bitfields.
	*
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	#define BitUnion(type, name) __BitUnion(type, name)

	/**
	* Use this to define conveniently sized values overlayed with bitfields.
	*
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	#define BitUnion64(name) __BitUnion(uint64_t, name)
	#define BitUnion32(name) __BitUnion(uint32_t, name)
	#define BitUnion16(name) __BitUnion(uint16_t, name)
	#define BitUnion8(name) __BitUnion(uint8_t, name)


	//These templates make it possible to define other templates related to
	//BitUnions without having to refer to internal typedefs or the BitfieldBackend
	//namespace.

	//To build a template specialization which works for all BitUnions, accept a
	//template argument T, and then use BitUnionType<T> as an argument in the
	//template. To refer to the basic type the BitUnion wraps, use
	//BitUnionBaseType<T>.

	//For example:
	//template <typename T>
	//void func(BitUnionType<T> u) { BitUnionBaseType<T> b = u; }

	//Also, BitUnionBaseType can be used on a BitUnion type directly.

	/**
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	template <typename T>
	using BitUnionType = BitfieldBackend::BitUnionOperators<T>;

	namespace BitfieldBackend
	{
	template<typename T>
	struct BitUnionBaseType
	{
	typedef typename BitUnionType<T>::__StorageType Type;
	};

	template<typename T>
	struct BitUnionBaseType<BitUnionType<T> >
	{
	typedef typename BitUnionType<T>::__StorageType Type;
	};
	}

	/**
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	template <typename T>
	using BitUnionBaseType = typename BitfieldBackend::BitUnionBaseType<T>::Type;


	//An STL style hash structure for hashing BitUnions based on their base type.
	namespace std
	{
	template <typename T>
	struct hash<BitUnionType<T> > : public hash<BitUnionBaseType<T> >
	{
	size_t
	operator() (const BitUnionType<T> &val) const
	{
	return hash<BitUnionBaseType<T> >::operator()(val);
	}
	};
	}


	namespace BitfieldBackend
	{

	template<typename T>
	static inline std::ostream &
	bitfieldBackendPrinter(std::ostream &os, const T &t)
	{
	os << t;
	return os;
	}

	//Since BitUnions are generally numerical values and not character codes,
	//these specializations attempt to ensure that they get cast to integers
	//of the appropriate type before printing.
	template <>
	inline std::ostream &
	bitfieldBackendPrinter(std::ostream &os, const char &t)
	{
	os << (int)t;
	return os;
	}

	template <>
	inline std::ostream &
	bitfieldBackendPrinter(std::ostream &os, const unsigned char &t)
	{
	os << (unsigned int)t;
	return os;
	}
	}

	/**
	* A default << operator which casts a bitunion to its underlying type and
	* passes it to BitfieldBackend::bitfieldBackendPrinter.
	*
	* @ingroup api_bitunion
	*/
	template <typename T>
	std::ostream &
	operator << (std::ostream &os, const BitUnionType<T> &bu)
	{
	return BitfieldBackend::bitfieldBackendPrinter(
	os, (BitUnionBaseType<T>)bu);
	}

	// Specialization for BitUnion types.
	template <class T>
	struct ParseParam<BitUnionType<T>>
	{
	static bool
	parse(const std::string &s, BitUnionType<T> &value)
	{
	// Zero initialize storage to avoid leaking an uninitialized value
	BitUnionBaseType<T> storage = BitUnionBaseType<T>();
	auto res = to_number(s, storage);
	value = storage;
	return res;
	}
	};

	template <class T>
	struct ShowParam<BitUnionType<T>>
	{
	static void
	show(std::ostream &os, const BitUnionType<T> &value)
	{
	ShowParam<BitUnionBaseType<T>>::show(
	os, static_cast<const BitUnionBaseType<T> &>(value));
	}
	};

	#endif // __BASE_BITUNION_HH__